Madinah Arabic Language Course

Contributions of Historical Arabian and Egyptian Scientists on Geography
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Abdullah Ibn Abbas Tales of The Sahaba

Abdullah was the son of Abbas, an uncle of the noble Prophet. He was born just three years ahead of the Hijrah. When the Prophet died, Abdullah was therefore only thirteen years previous. When he was born, his mother took him to the blessed Prophet who set some of his saliva on the babe's tongue even ahead of he started to suckle. This was the beginning of the close and intimate tie involving Abbas and the Prophet that was to be component of a life-extended love and devotion.

When Abdullah reached the age of discretion, he attached himself to the service of the Prophet. He would run to fetch water for him when he needed to make wudu. For the duration of Salat, he would stand behind the Prophet in prayer and when the Prophet went on journeys or expeditions, he would adhere to up coming in line to him. Abdullah therefore became like the shadow of the Prophet, continuously in his organization. In all these circumstances he was attentive and alert to no matter what the Prophet did and mentioned. His heart was enthusiastic and his youthful head was pure and uncluttered, committing the Prophet's words to memory with the capability and accuracy of a recording instrument. In this way and via his continuous researches later, as we shall see, Abdullah became one particular of the most learned companions of the Prophet, preserving on behalf of later generations of Muslims, the priceless words of the Messenger of God. It is mentioned that he committed to memory about one particular thousand, six hundred and sixty sayings of the Prophet which are recorded and authenticated in the collections of al-Bukhari and Muslim. The Prophet would usually draw Abdullah as a child close to him, pat him on the shoulder and pray: "O Lord, make him acquire a deep knowledge of the religion of Islam and instruct him in the that means and interpretation of issues."

There had been many occasions thereafter when the blessed Prophet would repeat this dua or prayer for his cousin and ahead of extended Abdullah ibn Abbas realized that his life was to be devoted to the pursuit of studying and understanding. The Prophet furthermore prayed that he be granted not just understanding and knowledge but wisdom. Abdullah associated the following incident about himself: "When the Prophet, peace be upon him, was on the level of doing wudu. I hurried to get water ready for him. He was happy with what I was performing. As he was about to begin Salat, he indicated that I should stand at his side. Nevertheless, I stood behind him. When the Salat was finished, he turned to me and mentioned: 'What prevented you from getting at my side, O Abdullah?' 'You are also illustrious and also fantastic in my eyes for me to stand side by side with you,' I replied. Raising his hands to the heavens, the Prophet then prayed: 'O Lord, grant him wisdom." The Prophet's prayer undoubtedly was granted for the youthful Abdullah was to show time and again that he possessed a wisdom past his years. But it was a wisdom that came only with devotion and the dogged pursuit of understanding the two for the duration of the Prophet's lifetime and following his death.

For the duration of the lifetime of the Prophet, Abdullah would not miss any of his assemblies and he would commit to memory no matter what he mentioned. Soon after the Prophet handed absent, he would take care to go to as many companions as feasible particularly those who knew the Prophet longer and understand from them what the Prophet had taught them. Whenever he heard that somebody knew a hadith of the Prophet which he did not know he would go quickly to him and file it. He would topic no matter what he heard to close scrutiny and check it towards other reports. He would go to as many as thirty companions to confirm a single issue.

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Abdullah described what he the moment did on hearing that a companion of the Prophet knew a hadith unknown to him: "I went to him for the duration of the time of the afternoon siesta and spread my cloak in front of his door. The wind blew dust on me (as I sat waiting for him). If I wished I could have sought his permission to enter and he would surely have provided me permission. But I preferred to wait on him so that he could be entirely refreshed. Coming out of his home and seeing me in that issue he mentioned: 'O cousin of the Prophet! What's the issue with you? If you had sent for me I would have come to you.' 'I am the one particular who should come to you, for understanding is sought, it does not just come,' I mentioned. I asked him about the hadith and learnt from him." In this way, the devoted Abdullah would ask, and ask, and go on asking. And he would sift and scrutinize the data he had collected with his keen and meticulous head. It was not only in the collection of hadith that Abdullah specialized. He devoted himself to obtaining understanding in a broad selection of fields. He had a particular admiration for individuals like Zayd ibn Thabit, the recorder of the revelation, the top judge and jurist seek advice from in Madinah, an specialist in the laws of inheritance and in reading through the Quran. When Zayd intended to go on a journey, the youthful Abdullah would stand humbly at his side and taking hold of the reins of his mount would adopt the mindset of a humble servant in the presence of his master. Zayd would say to him: "Don't, O cousin of the Prophet." "Thus we had been commanded to deal with the learned ones amongst us," Abdullah would say. "And Zayd would say to him in turn: "Let me see your hand." Abdullah would stretch out his hand. Zayd, taking it, would kiss it and say: "Thus we had been commanded to deal with the ahl al-bayt members of the home of the Prophet."

As Abdullah's understanding grew, he grew in stature. Masruq ibn al Ajda mentioned of him: "Whenever I noticed Ibn Abbas, I would say: He is the most handsome of males. When he spoke, I would say: He is the most eloquent of males. And when he held a conversation, I would say: He is the most educated of males." The Khalifah Umar ibn al-Khattab usually sought his suggestions on critical issues of state and described him as "the youthful man of maturity". Sad ibn abi Waqqas described him with these words: "I have in no way observed somebody who was faster in knowledge, who had more understanding and higher wisdom than Ibn Abbas. I have observed Umar summon him to discuss hard troubles in the presence of veterans of Badr from amongst the Muhajirin and Ansar. Ibn Abbas would converse and Umar would not disregard what he had to say." It is these characteristics which resulted in Abdullah ibn Abbas getting acknowledged as "the learned man of this Ummah".

Abdullah ibn Abbas was not subject material to accumulate understanding. He felt he had a duty to the ummah to educate those in search of understanding and the standard masses of the Muslim neighborhood. He turned to teaching and his home became a university - yes, a university in the full sense of the word, a university with specialized teaching but with the big difference that there was only one particular teacher Abdullah ibn Abbas. There was an enthusiastic response to Abdullah's classes. One of his companions described a common scene in front of his home: "I noticed men and women converging on the roads top to his home till there was hardly any area in front of his home. I went in and told him about the crowds of men and women at his door and he mentioned: 'Get me water for wudu.' He performed wudu and, seating himself, mentioned: 'Go out and say to them: Whoever desires to ask about the Quran and its letters (pronunciation) allow him enter.' This I did and men and women entered till the home was filled. What ever he was asked, Abdullah was ready to elucidate and even provide added data to what was asked. Then (to his students) he mentioned: 'Make way for your brothers.' Then to me he mentioned: 'Go out and say: Who desires to ask about the Quran and its interpretation, allow him enter'. Again the home was filled and Abdullah elucidated and provided more data than what was requested." And so it continued with groups of men and women coming in to discuss fiqh (jurisprudence),

halal and haram (the lawful and the prohibited in Islam), inheritance laws, Arabic language, poetry and etymology. To prevent congestion with many groups of men and women coming to discuss a variety of subjects on a single day, Abdullah made a decision to devote one particular day exclusively for a specific discipline. On one particular day, only the exegesis of the Quran would be taught even though on an additional day only fiqh (jurisprudence). The maghazi or campaigns of the Prophet, poetry, Arab history ahead of Islam had been every single allocated a particular day. Abdullah ibn Abbas introduced to his teaching a strong memory and a formidable intellect. His explanations had been precise, distinct and logical. His arguments had been persuasive and supported by pertinent textual evidence and historical details.

One event when his formidable powers of persuasion had been used was for the duration of the caliphate of Ali. A big amount of supporters of Ali in his stand towards Muawiyah had just deserted him. Abdullah ibn Abbas went to Ali and requested permission to converse to them. Ali hesitated fearing that Abdullah would be in danger at their hands but finally gave way on Abdullah's optimism that absolutely nothing untoward would take place. Abdullah went over to the group. They had been absorbed in worship. Some had been not ready to allow him converse but other people had been prepared to give him a hearing. "Tell me" asked Abdullah, "what grievances have you towards the cousin of the Prophet, the husband of his daughter and the initial of those who believed in him?" "The males proceeded to relate three major complaints towards Ali. Very first, that he appointed males to pass judgment in issues pertaining to the religion of God - that means that Ali had agreed to accept the arbitration of Abu Musa al-Asbari and Amr ibn al-As in the dispute with Muawiyah. Secondly, that he fought and did not take booty nor prisoners of war. Thirdly, that he did not insist on the title of Amir al-Muminin for the duration of the arbitration method although the Muslims had pledged allegiance to him and he was their legit amir. To them this was of course a indication of weakness and a indication that Ali was prepared to deliver his legit place as Amir al-Muminin into disrepute. In reply, Abdullah asked them that should he cite verses from the Quran and sayings of the Prophet to which they had no objection and which associated to their criticisms, would they be prepared to transform their place. They replied that they would and Abdullah proceeded: "Regarding your statement that Ali has appointed males to pass judgment in issues pertaining to Allah's religion, Allah Glorified and Exalted is He, says: 'O you who think! Destroy not game even though in the sacred precincts or in pilgrim garb. If any of you do so intentionally, the compensation is an supplying, of a domestic animal equivalent to the one particular he killed and adjudged by two just males amongst you." "I adjure you, by God! Is the adjudication by males in issues pertaining to the preservation of their blood and their lives and producing peace involving them more deserving of attention than adjudication over a rabbit whose value is only a quarter of a dirham?" Their reply was of program that arbitration was more critical in the circumstance of preserving Muslim lives and producing peace amongst them than over the killing of game in the sacred precincts for which Allah sanctioned arbitration by males. "Have we then finished with this level?" asked Abdullah and their reply was: "Allahumma, naam - O Lord, yes!" Abdullah went on: "As for your statement that Ali fought and did not take prisoners of war as the Prophet did, do you truly need to take your "mother" Aishah as a captive and deal with her as fair game in the way that captives are handled? If your solution is "Yes", then you have fallen into kufr (disbelief). And if you say that she is not your "mother", you would also have fallen into a state of kufr for Allah, Glorified and Exalted is He, has mentioned: 'The Prophet is nearer to the believers than their personal selves and his wives are their moms (entitled to respect and consideration).' (The Quran, Surah al-Ahzab, 34:six). "Select for oneself what you want," mentioned Abdullah and then he asked: "Have we then finished with this level?" and this time also their reply was: "Allahumma, naam - O Lord, yes!" Abdullah went on: "As for your statement that Ali has surrendered the title of Amir al-Muminin, (bear in mind) that the Prophet

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himself, peace and blessings of God be on him, at the time of Hudaybiyyah, demanded that the mushrikin create in the truce which he concluded with them: 'This is what the Messenger of God has agreed...' and they retorted: 'If we believed that you had been the Messenger of God we would not have blocked your way to the Kabah nor would we have fought you. Write as an alternative: 'Muhammad the son of Abdullah.' The Prophet conceded their demand even though declaring: 'By God, I am the Messenger of God even if they reject me." At this level Abdullah ibn Abbas asked the dissidents: "Have we then finished with this level? and their reply was the moment again: "Allahumma, naam - O Lord, yes!" One of the fruits of this verbal challenge in which Abdullah displayed his intimate understanding of the Quran and the sirah of the Prophet as properly as his exceptional powers of argument and persuasion, was that the vast majority, about twenty thousand males, returned to the ranks of Ali. About 4 thousand nevertheless remained obdurate. These latter came to be acknowledged as Kharijites. On this and other occasions, the courageous Abdullah showed that he preferred peace over war, and logic towards force and violence.

Nevertheless, he was not only acknowledged for his courage, his perceptive believed and his huge understanding. He was also acknowledged for his fantastic generosity and hospitality. Some of his contemporaries mentioned of his home: "We have not observed a home which has more food or drink or fruit or understanding than the home of Ibn Abbas." He had a genuine and abiding concern for men and women. He was thoughtful and caring. He the moment mentioned: "When I understand the value of a verse of God's Book, I would want that all men and women should know what I know. "When I hear of a Muslim ruler who deals equitably and guidelines justly, I am content on his account and I pray for him... "When I hear of rains which fail on the land of Muslims, that fills me with happiness..." Abdullah ibn Abbas was continuous in his devotions. He kept voluntary fasts frequently and usually stayed up at evening in Prayer. He would weep even though praying and reading through the Quran. And when reciting verses dealing with death, resurrection and the life hereafter his voice would be heavy from deep sobbing. He handed absent at the age of seventy one particular in the mountainous metropolis of Taif.

Md. Wasim Aktar


Deptt. of Agril. Chemical substances, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India.


The Muslims had to travel to distant lands across plains and cities, deserts and mountains, rivers and seas in connection with trade, jihad and the administration of their huge empire and other functions. Inside of one particular hundred years following


the advent of Islam, their empire stretched from Arabia to India in the East, Morocco and Spain in the West and the River Oxus in the North. In the 10th century, the Muslim empire comprised the following territories: Arabia, Egypt with the whole, Northern coast of Africa, (like the Atlantic coast as far as Anti-Atlas), virtually the total of Spain, the islands of Sicily, Greece, some Italian towns, Syria, Armenia, the South East of the Caucasus, Mesopotamia like Iraq, the total of modern-day Persia, Afghanistan, Transoxania like the delta region of Khawarizm, the valley and the mountains of Farghana and the territories of the reduce program of the Indus with Sind. (1) Travels in these huge lands and their administration necessitated the accumulation of data on them.



The science of geography is considerably allied to astronomy. For that reason, the examine of geography was also motivated by the exact same incentive with which the examine of astronomy was built. That incentive was the want for the determination


of the course of the Ka’bah for the orientation of the mosque and for turning faces towards it at he time of the prayer. This determination depended on the understanding of the latitudes and longitudes of the spots in which the Muslims lived.



A fantastic element in the promotion of the geographical examine was the Hajj, (the pilgrimage to Makkah). Just before leaving for Hajj, the Hujjaj (pilgrims) generally collected data on the territories which lay on the way to Makkah. To provide this kind of data many itineraries had been compiled, in which stations and the phases of the roads top from distinct countries to Makkah had been proven. In the early days of Islam, data on a variety of lands and the peoples was supplied chiefly by the traders and travelers. Muslim traders had been extremely energetic in those days. They reached as far as China, Russia, Zanzibar and the southern tip of Africa.



At the time bf the Hajj, the Muslims of distinct countries have a probability of meeting one particular an additional, discussing their mutual desires and troubles, and acquiring understanding of one particular another’s territories. Thus the Hajj is an critical element in disseminating understanding of the entire world amongst Muslims, promoting Muslim unity and strengthening the ties of commerce and trade amongst them.



The Muslims used to travel to far off lands in order to look for scholars and publications for obtaining understanding. They also formulated a taste for travel in order to acquire the understanding of the entire world via direct expertise. With their keen sense of observation and passionate curiosity they built a examine of the religious, social, political, historical, geographical, economic and agricultural conditions of the lands they handed via, and recorded their observations in their travelogues, in which they also supplied data on the scholars of their time.



A big amount of publications on geography had been created by Muslim geographers and travelers, which had been extensively studied. The translation of these publications was built into many European languages, and for centuries the Europeans acquired the understanding of the entire world via these publications. Until eventually modern-day instances they depended for their understanding of Africa on the perform of the Moroccan Hasan al-Wazzari (Leo Africanos) who wrote an account of his travels at the finish of the 16th century. For two centuries this perform was sometimes published in many European languages. (2)



The idea of the sphericity of the earth, denied and opposed by Christian theologians, had been transmitted extended ahead of Christopher Columbus to Europe via the works of Muslim astronomers and geographers. On the basis of this idea Columbus believed that by sailing towards the West he could attain the East. (three) The Ephemeredes which had built the voyage of Columbus feasible had been constructed by Regiomontanus from Al-Battãni’s tables. (4) This ultimately led to the discovery of America.



Vasco Da Gama’s sea journey to India was built with the help of a Muslim Arab pilot, Shihab al-Din Ahmad Ibn Májid who was called ‘The Lion of the Sea’. This pilot indicated to Vasco Da Gama the way to India, and even took him there


from the east coast of Africa. Ibn Májid is the writer of several manuals on navigation and oceanography. (5)



Prince Henry of Portugal set up underneath Muslim and Jewish teachers (trained in Muslim lands) his fantastic nautical academy at Cape St.Vincent, which prepared the way for Vasco Da Gama, and for the expansion of Europe to the uttermost ends of the earth. (six)



The Muslims opened up the land-routes to India, to China, Malacca, and Timbuktu, the emporium of Central African trade; and sent their caravans to the wealthy lands past the Sahara extended ahead of the Portuguese doubled Cape Verde. They held the monopoly of the sea-routes to India, and the Emosaids founded along the eastern coast of Africa a line of trading colonies from the Sudan coast and Socotra to Mombassa,. Mozambique, Zanzibar and Madagascar. (7)



The seventh ‘Abbasi Caliph Al-Ma’mun took a keen interest in geography. He appointed seventy scholars to draw a big map of the entire world. One of these scholars was Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwãrizmi. He compiled a geographical perform called Rasm al-Ma’mur min al-Bilad (the description of the inhabited lands) which consists of the results of the researches of these scholars. He built improvement on Ptolemy’s geographical perform, the two in the text and in the maps. He followed Ptolemy in giving the latitudes and longitudes of a variety of spots. He also gave the geographical positions of the spots which originated following the rise of Islam. (eight)



In 851 A.C. appeared the narrative of a Muslim merchant named Suleiman who undertook travels to China and to many coast lands of the Indian Ocean. It is the initial description of these lands in Arabic. It throws light on the commercial relations involving the Chinese and Muslims in the initial 50 percent of the tenth century. An additional description of this kind of a journey was written by Abu Zaid. This journey was built to China by Ibn Wahb in 870. (9)



In the ninth century A.C. several descriptions of roads and countries came into existence. One this kind of description entitled the Kitäb al-Masalik wa’l-MamaIik was composed by Ibn Khurdadhbih, a geographer of Persian origin, who was the director of posts. The guide, which is the author’s major perform, also consists of short narrations of journeys in distant lands. It is an critical supply for the examine of the topography of the Muslim empire. It was translated into French. The writer of this perform was born in about 825, and died in 912. (10)



An additional this kind of description of the exact same period entitled Kitäb al-Masalik wa’l-MamaIik was written in 891—92 by Ahmad Ibn Abi ya’qüb, a historian and geographer, typically acknowledged as Al-Ya’qübi. This guide is the masterpiece of the writer. The writer himself traveled in a variety of lands in the East and West. He visited Persia, India, Arabia, Syria, Maghrib (Tunis, Algiers and Morocco) and Spain. He collected data on the routines, customs, the governments of the inhabitants of these lands, and the distances involving a variety of spots in their countries. He also described no matter what he knew about the conquest of lands by the caliphs and other rulers, and pointed out the sum of Khiräj (land tax) collected by the governments. This guide is one particular of the earliest and authentic resources of geographical understanding. The description of Baghdad is particularly fascinating. (11)



An critical geographer and traveler of the tenth century was Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Ibn Muhammad al-Istakhri. He traveled in Arabia and some of the Indian territories, and reached the Atlantic areas. He wrote two geographical works. One of them is the Suwar -al-Aqalim (figures of climates) which is a revision of Al-Balkhi’s perform bearing the exact same title. The other is the Masalik al-Mamalik. It consists of a colored map for every single country. The two of these works or one particular of them was utilized by Al-Yaqut in his Mu’jam al-Buldän (dictionary of the countries). (12)



An additional traveler and geographer of this time was Abu’l Qãsim Muhammad Ibn Hawqal. He was a merchant by profession; He started his journey from Baghdad in 943, and came to Maghrib and Sicily. He also traveled in Spain and other countries. He revised the maps and the text of his geographical perform at the request of the geographer Al-Istakhri. Then he wrote a perform of his personal called Kitäb al-Masalik wa’l Mamalik which consists of a map for every single country. (13)



An additional properly-acknowledged Muslim geographer and traveler was Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Abu Bakr al-Maqdisi who at initial traveled extensively in connection with organization. The travels provided him thorough data of a variety of lands. Later he gave up the profession of organization, and started to travel just to acquire the understanding of the entire world. These travels supplied him the option of producing close and intimate observation and provided him thorough understanding of a variety of lands. Al-Maqdisi wrote his travelogue entitled Ahsan al-Taqãsim fi Ma’rifat al-Aqalim (very best division for understanding of the climates). It consists of a lot authentic data, and has been translated into English. The component of the guide dealing with Syria and Palestine has been translated into German. The writer spent some time in India, wrote a amount of geographical works, and mentioned the question of the rotation of the earth round its axis. He regarded the Indus Valley to be originally a sea basin which was then filled with alluvial soil. He established accurately the latitudes and longitudes, and built geodetic measurements. (14)



An additional critical geographer of the 11th century was ‘Abd Allah Ibn ‘Abd al-’Aziz al- Bikri. He was also a botanist, lexicographer and historian. He was properly-versed in literature and genealogy. He was born in Saltes, and migrated to Cordova in which he died at a extremely previous age in 1094. He wrote precious publications on many subjects. The Kings of the Spanish territories used to send his publications to one particular an additional as a gift. One of these publications is a geographical perform called Kitäb al Masalik wa’l Mamalik. It is in the form of an itinerary. It also consists of historical and ethnographical data. He also composed a geographical dictionary, chiefly, of Arabia. (15)



An additional traveler of the 11th century was Näsir Khusrau who was also a philosopher and a poet. He was born in 1003, and died in 1088. He traveled from 1045 to 1052 in Arabia, Syria, Egypt, Palestine and Persia, and gave an account of his travels in a guide written in Persian, It is entitled Safarnamah. It consists of geographical, ethnographical and archaeological data. (16)



A geographer of the 12th century who also wrote in Persian was acknowledged as Ibn al-Balkhi. In the beginning of the 12th century Ibn al-Balkhi wrote in Persian a description of the province of Fars which corresponds to the south-west component of modern-day Persia along the Persian Gulf. This description is entitled Farsnamah. It has been translated into English. (17)



One of the travelers, geographers and cartographers of the exact same period was Abu ‘Abd Allah Ibn ‘Abd al-Rahim al-Gharnati who was born in 1080, in Granada, and died in 1169 in Damascus. He traveled from Spain towards the East. In 1117 he sailed from Spain to Egypt, by means of Sardinia and Sicily. He went to Baghdad, Abhar, Jibäl, Sakhsin (or Saqain) on the upper Volga. In the latter region he spent many years. He also traveled in Balghar (close to Kazan on the Volga), Bashgird, and Hungary. In 1160 he was in Baghdad. Later he lived at a variety of spots in Khurasan and Syria. He is the writer of many geographical works. His descriptions of the foreign countries are largely anecdotic. One of his works is entitled Tuhfat al-Albab wa Nukhbat al-’Ajä’ib. It is divided into many sections as follows:—


Introduction (1); General description of the entire world and its inhabitants like Jinn (2); Singularities of a variety of countries (three); Seas, islands, and the unusual animals residing in them (4); Caravans, fossils, and many others.



Al-Gharnati gives an account of the fossil bones. In 1136, even though he was in Bulghar, he discovered that trade in bones was getting carried out there. They had been exported as far as Khawarizm. (18)



An additional illustrious scholar of this age and the best geographer of the Middle Ages was Abu ‘Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd Allah, typically called Al-Sharif al-Idrisi. He was also a historian, botanist, traveler, litterateur and poet. He was born in 1099. He was introduced up at Cordova in which he received his education. Then he undertook extended travels in the Mediterranean region till at final he reached Sicily. He settled down in Palermo in which he became the courtier of Roger II, the Norman King of Sicily. For this cause he is also called Al-Siqali.



At Palermo Al-Idrisi started to compile his monumental perform on entire world geography entitled Nuzhat al-Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq al-Afaq or Kitäb al-Rujuri which was finished in 1154. It is the most thorough perform ever written on medieval history and geography. It is the very best Arabic perform on the description of Europe. The later Muslim geographers derived data on Europe from this celebrated perform.



Nuzhat al-Mushtaq consists of seventy one particular maps. Of these, a round entire world map is provided in the beginning of the guide, and the remaining seventy in the middle of it. Each and every map represents a tenth component of one particular of the 7 climes in which the entire world was divided by Ptolemy. These climes are the latitudinal lands which lie to the north of the Equator, and are divided by lines of longitude into ten parts. In his text Al-Indrisi gathers, in an orderly trend, the historical, geographical and miscellaneous materials relating to the locations covered by these maps. Each and every section of the guide is devoted to the description of one particular of these seventy maps. Al-Idrisi acquired a map engraved by the artisans on a round base built of silver. It was the consequence of the co-operative efforts of the scholars who worked for about fifteen years on accumulating materials on the then acknowledged entire world. This materials was collected from the envoys of the king, from all the accessible geographical treatises, and from other resources of data.



The maps provided in the guide indicate that the writer accepted the sphericity of the earth. Among the exceptional attributes of these maps is the area of the exact resources of the Nile, which is wrongly deemed to be a discovery of the 19th century.



The total Arabic text of Al-Idrisi’s perform has not been critically studied as but. It has in no way been published in full. Several scholars undertook the task of editing it, but due to the issues concerned they either gave up this task or remained contented with the editing of one particular or two sections only. The section dealing with India and the neighboring territories was published in India in 1954. The guide was translated into Latin, English, French and German. (19)



A renowned scholar, traveler and geographer of this century was Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Jubair al-Kan’ãni al-Andalüsi. He was born in 1144 in Valencia or in Shatiba, lived in Granada and died in 1217 in Alexandria. He had understanding of literature, poetry, Fiqh and Hadith. He received his education from a amount of teachers residing in distinct lands.



Ibn Jubair’s writings had been based mostly on his travelogue and poetry. He composed some of the verses mourning the death of his wife, and some other people as a satire on the age he lived in. Ibn Jubair built travels to the East thrice, beginning every single travel from Spain and doing the Hajj every single time.



He started his initial travel from Granada in 1182 following which he wrote his renowned travelogue. He went on his 2nd journey on hearing the news of the conquest of Jerusalem. He left for that metropolis from Granada in 1189, and returned in 1197. On return he initial lived in Granada, then in Malaga and later in Sabta, and lastly in Fas devoting himself to lecturing on Hadith and Sufism and reporting the Hadith his knew. He started his third travel following the death of his wife. Very first of all he went to Makkah in which he stayed for a extended time. From there he went to Jerusalem and from there to Egypt and Alexandria in which he engaged himself in reporting the Hadith till his death.



Ibn Jubair‘s initial travel continued for two years and three and a 50 percent months. It was started in 1182, and ended in 1185. In the program of this travel he visited Egypt, Arabia, Iraq, Syria and Sicily. At the finish of this travel he wrote a travelogue in which he gave an account of the spots in which he stayed or via which he handed. He gave specific emphasis on the description of the mosques, the graves of the Prophet’s (SAS) Companions and of other properly-acknowledged men and women, hospitals and renowned monuments. He pointed out particularly some of the social and economic elements of Egypt, religious elements of the Arab cities, the pursuits of the religious preachers in Iraq, the political and economic conditions of Syria, the wars involving the Muslims and the Crusaders, and the state of Muslims of Sicily, residing underneath the suzerainty of King Guillaume. Giving an account of a variety of spots he attached value to the issues for which those spots had been properly-acknowledged, this kind of as the Light Home of Alexandria, the Pyramids and Sphinx of Cairo, the size of the Rhodes Island, the Temple of Dandara, the holy Islamic spots of Makkah, the Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah, the mosque of Kufah, the inflammable oil of Mosul, the fort of Aleppo, and the Umayyad mosque in Damascus.



Ibn Jubair’s travelogue consists of some data which is indispensable for geographers, historians and littérateurs interested in this critical period of Islamic history. The writer depicts Salah al-Din al-Ayyübi as a fantastic personality, and gives an account of the large place that this hero had acquired in the hearts of the Muslims of his age. The writer also gives a description of the relations involving Muslims and Crusaders in war and peace, which is not accessible in most of the publications on history. He entirely describes the conditions of Muslims residing in Sicily and in the territories in which the Crusaders reached from Syria. He also tends to make some referenc to the life and manners of the Easterners, most of which can even now be observed.



This travelogue is extremely critical and fascinating. Several Orientalists took a keen interest in its examine, and wrote helpful commentaries on it. The component of the travelogue regarding Sicily was translated into French and Italian. (20)



An critical Muslim traveler and geographer of the early 13th century was Abu ‘Abd Allah Yaqut Ibn ‘Abd Allah Shihab al-Din al-Hamawi al-Rumi. He was also a trustworthy historian, lexicographer and philologist. He was born in a Greek family members in 1179, and died in 1229. He started his travel when he was even now youthful. He was enslaved in Baghdad by a merchant who patronized him, assisted him to be educated, and employed him to carry on his organization. Then he was set free of charge. Yaqut earned his livelihood by copying publications. He remained with his master till the latter’s death. Then he carried on his trade independently. He traveled extensively till he reached Marw (Khurasan), and carried on his trade there. He also traveled to Syria and Egypt. His journeys had been full of adventures.



Yaqut wrote a geographical dictionary called Mu’jam al-Buldän. It is the author’s major perform, and is one particular of the most critical works of Arabic literature. It is a mine of data on geography and other subjects like history, ethnography and natural history. It is arranged in alphabetical order. The introduction deals with mathematical, bodily and political geography, the 7 climes, the size of the earth and related topics. The dictionary gives data on the framework and correct pronunciation of the names of the spots pointed out therein. It also consists of a fantastic deal of historical notes, biographical sketches of learned men and women, and discussions on grammar and so on.



Yaqut is the writer of a variety of other works like biographical dictionaries of the poets and literati. (21)



A Muslim geographer of the 13th century was Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali Ibn Müsã Ibn Muhammad al-Maghribi. He was also a historian and poet, and had a excellent understanding of the Arabic literature. He was born in 1208 close to Granada and died in 1274 or in 1286. He traveled extensively and visited Egypt, Syria and Iraq. He was the guest of Hulagu, (II-Khan of Persia from 1256 to 1265).



In 1251 for the duration of his remain at Baghdad ‘Ali Ibn Musa visited 36 libraries in that metropolis. He had the understanding of the mouth of the river Senegal. He gave an account of the northern countries of Europe in which white bears are discovered. He pointed out that Iceland is called the island of white falcons and that the genuine falcons are discovered in Denmark.



‘Ali Ibn Musa is the writer of many works on distinct subjects. His major perform is a geographical treatise entitled Kitäb Bast aI-Ard-fi’l-Tul wa’l-Ard. It is also called Kitäb al -jughrafiyah. It is based mostly on the geographical works of Ptolemy and Al-Idrisi, but also gives data on the details learned following the latter’s time. It also consists of the geographical co-ordinates of each and every critical spot, which had been not pointed out by Al-Idrisi. He also wrote a history of pre-Islamic Arabia and two other works, one particular dealing with the West and the other with the East. (22)



A traveler of the late 13th century was Abu Muhammad, Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Ali, al-‘Abdari. He is called Al-’Abdari due to the fact he was the descendant of ‘Abd al-Dar. He was born at a village in Valencia. This village contained hot mineral waters in it. In 1289 he left for Makkah for the performance of the Hajj. He built his journey the two ways by land. In the program of his journey he visited Baja, Tunis and Qairawan, and handed via Alexandria. Thus he crossed the total, of North Africa twice. He wrote a travelogue in which he gave a description of the North African countries. This travelogue consists of topographical data, and throws light on the Muslim life and the scholarship of that time. (23)



An additional traveler of the exact same metropolis who belongs to the eastern Muslim empire was ‘Ali Ibn Abi Bakr Ibn ‘Ali al-Harawi. He was a historian as properly. He was born in Mosul, and died in 1214 in Aleppo in which he had a steady. He traveled in many lands. In 1173—74 he visited Jerusalem which was then underneath Christian management. He witnessed an eruption of Etna. He was in make contact with with Manuel I Comnenos (Emperor from 1143 to 1180) in Constantinople. In 1191 he was caught at sea by the fleet which was carrying Richard, Coeur-de-Lion to the siege of Acre. He wrote a guide which served as a guide for pilgrims. This guide guide is called Kitäb fi Ma’rifat al-Ziyarat. In this guide he deals with Syria, Palestine, Egypt, the Byzantine Empire, Mesopotamia, India, Arabia, the Maghrib, and Abyssinia, giving short but initial hand data about all these countries excluding the final two. He also wrote a travelogue and several other works on distinct subjects. It is mentioned that he used to create on the walls of virtually each and every renowned spot he handed via. Some sea warrior, chief’s state that even though traveling on sea they discovered a piece of land getting a wall on which there was his writing. (24)



Beneath Tughril II who was the final Saljuq ruler of Iraq and Kurdistan (1177—1194) there flourished a Persian cosmographer, Muhammad Ibn Mahmud Ibn Ahmad al-Tusi al-Salmani who wrote in Persian a cosmography entitled Aja’ib al-Makhluqat. It consists of at the beginning six maps which represent the Caspian sea, the Mediterranean sea, Jibäl, Sind, the Arabian sea and Arabia. (25)


REFERENCES :-


1. Arnold and Guillaume, The Legacy of Islam, Oxford College Press, 1949, p. 79.


2. Landau, Rom, Islam and the Arabs, Unwin Brothers Ltd., Woking and London, 1958, p. 173.


three. Ibid.


4. Brifault, Dr. Robert, The Generating of Humanity, Islamic Book Foundation, Lahore, 1980, p. 202.


5. Landau, op. cit., p. 174.


six. Brifault, op. cit., p. 202.


7. Ibid., p. 204.


eight. Arnold and Guillaume, op. cit., p. 84.


9. Sarton, George, Introduction to the Historical past of Science, Washington, 1927, Vol. I, p. 571.


10. Muhsin Ibn Khurdadhbih, Kitäb al-Masalik wa’l- Mamalik, Leiden Press, Leiden, 1306 A.H.


11. Ahmad Ibn Abi Ya’qüb, Kitäb al-Buldän, Matba’ah Haydariyyah, Najaf, pp. a-d.


12. A1-Istakhari, Kitäb al-Masalik wa’l-Mamalik, Leiden Press, Leiden, 1927.


13. Sarton, op. cit., p. 674.


14. Isma’il Bãshã al-Baghdadi, Nodiyyat al-’Arifiu, Istanbul Vol II, 1951, p. 62.


15. Sarton, op. cit., p. 768.


16. Ibid.


17. Ibid., vol. II, Aspect I, p. 221.


18. Ibid, p.412


19. ‘Umar Rida Kahhalah, Mu’jam al-Mua’llifin, Matha’ah Tarraqj, Damascus, Vol. XI, 1960, p. 236.


Sarton, op. cit. p. 410.


20. Näsr, Dr. Hussein, Preface of Rihlat Ibn al-Jubair, Cairo, 1955, pp. 1—9.


21. Sarton, op. cit., Aspect II, p. 642.


22. Ibid., p. 1065.


23. Ibid., p. 1065.


24. Ibid. Aspect I, p. 413.


25. Haji Khalifah, Kashf al-Zunün, Istanbul, 1943, Vol. II, p. 1128.